Education and Culture, 1865–1920

In 1860, the Saturday Review flatly stated “the great argument against the existence of this equality of intellect in women is that it does not exist.” Despite such negative attitudes, the reappraisal of social and cultural norms which accompanied the end of slavery and the transition to an urban industrial nation prompted a reevaluation of women’s roles, especially in education. Some people argued that academic study would prevent women from marrying or being mothers, but female educational levels increased in all sections of the nation and among all social groups. In an era which required credentials for the practice of teaching, medicine, and law, study through high school and university became the prerequisite for many occupations. Women of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era believed obtaining these credentials would overcome the obstacles to employment and community standing their foremothers encountered. At the same time, higher literacy rates and growing population densities encouraged female authors and the formation of women’s literary, social and reform clubs.