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Attachment is a universal human phenomenon. Nevertheless, there are some qualitative differences in the ways attachment may be expressed and experienced by different individuals these differences may relate to factors such as d isability emperament or more broadly to genetic infl uences on attachment (although caution is required when attributing attachment-related differences to the influence of individual or even relational characteristics without understanding these as being operationa within particular social settings and in relation to the adequate or inadequate provision of social and environmental support). Whether there are gender differences in the expression of attachment relationships or in how they are perceived is less clear.